法國歷史學家勒內(nei)·格魯塞的(de)(de)(de)《草原帝國》:“明朝(chao)(chao)偉(wei)大的(de)(de)(de)永樂(le)(le)皇帝所(suo)貫(guan)徹的(de)(de)(de)政策(ce),即為(wei)了打倒(dao)忽必烈(lie)家族而扶持年(nian)(nian)(nian)輕的(de)(de)(de)發(fa)(fa)展中的(de)(de)(de)衛拉特(te)勢力,是在(zai)(zai)(zai)他死后才(cai)見(jian)效的(de)(de)(de)。”但明宣宗(zong)放棄(qi)戰(zhan)略(lve)機遇,“自仁宗(zong)不(bu)(bu)(bu)勤(qin)遠略(lve),宣宗(zong)承之(zhi)。”導致(zhi)宣德(de)五年(nian)(nian)(nian)瓦剌(la)首領脫(tuo)(tuo)(tuo)(tuo)歡密(mi)遣麥克(ke)零部(bu)落迎脫(tuo)(tuo)(tuo)(tuo)脫(tuo)(tuo)(tuo)(tuo)不(bu)(bu)(bu)花,宣德(de)八(ba)年(nian)(nian)(nian)脫(tuo)(tuo)(tuo)(tuo)脫(tuo)(tuo)(tuo)(tuo)不(bu)(bu)(bu)花被脫(tuo)(tuo)(tuo)(tuo)歡立為(wei)大汗。脫(tuo)(tuo)(tuo)(tuo)歡以脫(tuo)(tuo)(tuo)(tuo)脫(tuo)(tuo)(tuo)(tuo)不(bu)(bu)(bu)花汗的(de)(de)(de)名義(yi)統一安樂(le)(le)王、賢義(yi)王及和(he)寧王所(suo)部(bu),并(bing)聯姻忠(zhong)順王,逐漸侵蝕(shi)明朝(chao)(chao)邊(bian)界,明英(ying)宗(zong)君臣志在(zai)(zai)(zai)重新(xin)振興。朱(zhu)祁鎮在(zai)(zai)(zai)正統三年(nian)(nian)(nian)、正統六年(nian)(nian)(nian)、正統九(jiu)年(nian)(nian)(nian)、正統十(shi)四年(nian)(nian)(nian)所(suo)發(fa)(fa)動的(de)(de)(de)四次大規模北伐。在(zai)(zai)(zai)第四次北伐中明英(ying)宗(zong)因情報系統失靈戰(zhan)敗被俘。明英(ying)宗(zong)正統四年(nian)(nian)(nian)(1439年(nian)(nian)(nian))脫(tuo)(tuo)(tuo)(tuo)歡死,其子也先繼位后,不(bu)(bu)(bu)僅漠南(nan)諸部(bu)全被征服(fu),且東脅朝(chao)(chao)鮮,西略(lve)哈密(mi),草原大半,盡為(wei)其所(suo)制(zhi)。也先每年(nian)(nian)(nian)冬遣人(ren)貢馬于明。起初所(suo)遣使者不(bu)(bu)(bu)過五十(shi)人(ren),后貪朝(chao)(chao)廷(ting)厚賞,歲增(zeng)至(zhi)二(er)千余人(ren),并(bing)屢屢索要貴重難得(de)之(zhi)物(wu)。稍(shao)不(bu)(bu)(bu)遂,即制(zhi)造事(shi)端,明廷(ting)所(suo)賜財物(wu),不(bu)(bu)(bu)得(de)不(bu)(bu)(bu)歲有所(suo)增(zeng)。
仁宣(xuan)(xuan)朝(chao)的(de)(de)治(zhi)邊(bian)(bian)策(ce)略既(ji)班固所(suo)(suo)批(pi)評的(de)(de)治(zhi)邊(bian)(bian)觀念,“縉(jin)紳之(zhi)儒守和親,介(jie)胄之(zhi)士言征供。征伐則(ze)民(min)力竭,和親則(ze)國威喪(sang),于是有“守四夷羈(ji)縻不(bu)(bu)(bu)絕,地不(bu)(bu)(bu)可(ke)耕,民(min)不(bu)(bu)(bu)可(ke)臣”乾隆認為此言興臭(chou)然!羈(ji)縻之(zhi)道(dao),清朝(chao)強(qiang)(qiang)調(diao)恩威并(bing)施,撫(fu)剿并(bing)重,宣(xuan)(xuan)德(de)五年(nian)前(qian),蒙(meng)(meng)古(gu)(gu)各(ge)部(bu)陸續南下(xia)緊貼明(ming)堡居(ju)住,邊(bian)(bian)將(jiang)奏報力主嚴(yan)(yan)(yan)(yan)剿,遠(yuan)離(li)邊(bian)(bian)地的(de)(de)明(ming)宣(xuan)(xuan)宗(zong)(zong)認為本(ben)無(wu)漠北問(wen)題,純屬有心(xin)者煽(shan)動與(yu)邊(bian)(bian)臣挑釁。“爾(er)但宜慎(shen)邊(bian)(bian)備,固城(cheng)池(chi),彼不(bu)(bu)(bu)犯邊(bian)(bian),毋(wu)擅以兵(bing)逼之(zhi),果來降,亦察(cha)其實,俾之(zhi)入境,或近邊(bian)(bian)居(ju)止(zhi),或打(da)圍,或往北行(xing),聽其所(suo)(suo)之(zhi)”宣(xuan)(xuan)德(de)八年(nian),海(hai)西(xi)女(nv)(nv)真(zhen)不(bu)(bu)(bu)斷受(shou)到兀(wu)良哈等(deng)蒙(meng)(meng)軍的(de)(de)侵擾(rao)故向(xiang)遼東(dong)都司求(qiu)(qiu)救(jiu),明(ming)宣(xuan)(xuan)宗(zong)(zong)亦以“彼來擾(rao)(遼東(dong))則(ze)御之(zhi),不(bu)(bu)(bu)擾(rao)亦勿侮之(zhi)”。宣(xuan)(xuan)宗(zong)(zong)的(de)(de)決策(ce)給明(ming)蒙(meng)(meng)雙方造(zao)(zao)成很大(da)影(ying)響,彼時明(ming)軍軍力尚處(chu)于強(qiang)(qiang)盛時期,蒙(meng)(meng)古(gu)(gu)自(zi)思不(bu)(bu)(bu)能(neng)(neng)力敵既(ji)以使臣名義遣間諜長(chang)居(ju)明(ming)邊(bian)(bian),招(zhao)攬明(ming)將(jiang),避免直接(jie)與(yu)明(ming)軍發(fa)(fa)生沖突(tu),專重蠶(can)食東(dong)勝,開(kai)平,大(da)寧舊地,以脫(tuo)脫(tuo)不(bu)(bu)(bu)花的(de)(de)名義安穩(wen)蒙(meng)(meng)古(gu)(gu)各(ge)部(bu),鎮(zhen)(zhen)(zhen)撫(fu)關西(xi)七衛、女(nv)(nv)真(zhen)衛所(suo)(suo);而(er)明(ming)軍麾下(xia)女(nv)(nv)真(zhen)衛所(suo)(suo)、蒙(meng)(meng)古(gu)(gu)降人、漢(han)人將(jiang)領(ling)發(fa)(fa)現(xian)既(ji)然無(wu)法(fa)同(tong)(tong)(tong)洪武(wu)永樂(le)時代那樣依(yi)靠對抗蒙(meng)(meng)軍升官,保境,只能(neng)(neng)選擇與(yu)蒙(meng)(meng)軍合作發(fa)(fa)財,以求(qiu)(qiu)靜(jing)邊(bian)(bian)。因正(zheng)統(tong)朝(chao)明(ming)軍開(kai)始勤于邊(bian)(bian)務(wu)才得以發(fa)(fa)現(xian)仁宣(xuan)(xuan)朝(chao)各(ge)處(chu)邊(bian)(bian)防漏洞,正(zheng)統(tong)十年(nian)十一月庚寅,明(ming)英宗(zong)(zong)朱祁(qi)鎮(zhen)(zhen)(zhen)接(jie)到報告說來朝(chao)貢的(de)(de)瓦剌使臣隨行(xing)物品中(zhong)攜帶了(le)大(da)量盔(kui)甲(jia)(jia)兵(bing)器(qi)弓(gong)箭銃炮(pao),經過調(diao)查發(fa)(fa)現(xian)是大(da)同(tong)(tong)(tong)、宣(xuan)(xuan)府等(deng)地走私(si)(si)商(shang)出售。鑒于此時明(ming)朝(chao)還(huan)在嚴(yan)(yan)(yan)(yan)格管控火(huo)器(qi)制(zhi)造(zao)(zao)技術于兩京,能(neng)(neng)合法(fa)制(zhi)造(zao)(zao)火(huo)器(qi)的(de)(de)邊(bian)(bian)地衛所(suo)(suo)少(shao)(shao)之(zhi)又(you)少(shao)(shao),顯然走私(si)(si)商(shang)跟明(ming)軍脫(tuo)不(bu)(bu)(bu)了(le)關系。于是朱祁(qi)鎮(zhen)(zhen)(zhen)給當時大(da)同(tong)(tong)(tong)總兵(bing)武(wu)進伯(bo)朱冕(mian)和宣(xuan)(xuan)府總兵(bing)等(deng)將(jiang)官下(xia)了(le)一道(dao)敕(chi)令,讓他們今后嚴(yan)(yan)(yan)(yan)厲打(da)擊(ji)走私(si)(si)行(xing)為,若再有發(fa)(fa)生嚴(yan)(yan)(yan)(yan)懲(cheng)不(bu)(bu)(bu)貸。正(zheng)統(tong)十年(nian)十一月庚寅,明(ming)英宗(zong)(zong)朱祁(qi)鎮(zhen)(zhen)(zhen)敕(chi)大(da)同(tong)(tong)(tong)、宣(xuan)(xuan)府總兵(bing)等(deng)官,武(wu)進伯(bo)朱冕(mian)等(deng)曰(yue):“瓦剌使臣多(duo)帶兵(bing)甲(jia)(jia)、弓(gong)矢、銅銃諸(zhu)物,詢(xun)其所(suo)(suo)由,皆大(da)同(tong)(tong)(tong)、宣(xuan)(xuan)府一路貪(tan)利之(zhi)徒(明(ming)朝(chao)對火(huo)器(qi)有極(ji)嚴(yan)(yan)(yan)(yan)格的(de)(de)產地要求(qiu)(qiu)及管理規定(ding),明(ming)英宗(zong)(zong)所(suo)(suo)指貪(tan)利之(zhi)徒是誰不(bu)(bu)(bu)言自(zi)明(ming))私(si)(si)與(yu)交易者。爾(er)等(deng)受(shou)朕委(wei)任,防閑弛(chi)慢,自(zi)今其嚴(yan)(yan)(yan)(yan)加禁約,若仍前(qian)弛(chi)慢,罪亦不(bu)(bu)(bu)宥。”
宣德(de)時期(qi),脫(tuo)歡(huan)(huan)對明(ming)宣宗非(fei)常(chang)恭順,瓦剌(la)部(bu)(bu)(bu)使(shi)(shi)臣可以在甘寧等(deng)(deng)(deng)處久住,習知中國虛實。正統(tong)初(chu),瓦剌(la)太(tai)師(shi)脫(tuo)歡(huan)(huan)率(lv)部(bu)(bu)(bu)擊敗韃靼阿(a)臺汗(han)、朵(duo)兒只伯,結束了蒙(meng)古(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)內(nei)部(bu)(bu)(bu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)分(fen)裂局(ju)面。正統(tong)四(si)年(nian)(nian)(1439年(nian)(nian)),也(ye)先(xian)(xian)承襲父位(wei),統(tong)領蒙(meng)古(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)。脫(tuo)歡(huan)(huan)與也(ye)先(xian)(xian)都(dou)十分(fen)重視(shi)與明(ming)廷(ting)(ting)(ting)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)朝貢(gong)往(wang)來(lai)(lai)(lai),隨著蒙(meng)古(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)內(nei)部(bu)(bu)(bu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)相(xiang)對穩(wen)定,明(ming)蒙(meng)朝貢(gong)體制也(ye)進入了前所未有(you)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)繁榮期(qi)。明(ming)廷(ting)(ting)(ting)對于蒙(meng)古(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)使(shi)(shi)團(tuan)(tuan)始終本著“薄來(lai)(lai)(lai)厚往(wang)”的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)政(zheng)策。首(shou)先(xian)(xian),賞(shang)賜(si)物(wu)品價值要(yao)遠(yuan)遠(yuan)超出貢(gong)品的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)價值。一(yi)般(ban)明(ming)廷(ting)(ting)(ting)對來(lai)(lai)(lai)朝者按其人(ren)數及地位(wei)給賞(shang)。如賜(si)王或太(tai)師(shi)一(yi)人(ren)十五表(biao)里(li),其妻(qi)每口八表(biao)里(li),一(yi)等(deng)(deng)(deng)頭目八表(biao)里(li),二等(deng)(deng)(deng)六表(biao)里(li),三等(deng)(deng)(deng)五表(biao)里(li),四(si)等(deng)(deng)(deng)四(si)表(biao)里(li),外有(you)加賜(si)。蒙(meng)古(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)使(shi)(shi)團(tuan)(tuan)返程(cheng)時,明(ming)廷(ting)(ting)(ting)也(ye)會(hui)以禮相(xiang)送,啟程(cheng)前享用朝廷(ting)(ting)(ting)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)賜(si)宴(yan),回程(cheng)一(yi)路差官伴送,沿(yan)途備辦飯食,凡所經過,茶飯管待。明(ming)廷(ting)(ting)(ting)這種“薄來(lai)(lai)(lai)厚往(wang)”的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)回賜(si)政(zheng)策對蒙(meng)古(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)使(shi)(shi)團(tuan)(tuan)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)吸引是很大的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de),很多蒙(meng)古(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)使(shi)(shi)團(tuan)(tuan)為了得到(dao)更的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)賞(shang)賜(si),成倍的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)擴(kuo)大使(shi)(shi)團(tuan)(tuan)人(ren)數。如正統(tong)四(si)年(nian)(nian)(1439年(nian)(nian))正月明(ming)廷(ting)(ting)(ting)對蒙(meng)古(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)諸多貴族給予賞(shang)賜(si)后,十月,脫(tuo)脫(tuo)不(bu)花(hua)再次遣阿(a)都(dou)赤來(lai)(lai)(lai)朝,這次的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)使(shi)(shi)團(tuan)(tuan)人(ren)數由過去(qu)常(chang)見的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)幾百人(ren)猛增(zeng)到(dao)千余人(ren),明(ming)廷(ting)(ting)(ting)依(yi)然按例給賞(shang)。明(ming)廷(ting)(ting)(ting)對蒙(meng)古(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)使(shi)(shi)團(tuan)(tuan)人(ren)數不(bu)加限制,凡來(lai)(lai)(lai)朝者必(bi)有(you)賞(shang)賜(si),這對某(mou)些蒙(meng)古(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)(gu)頭目的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)貪欲(yu)是一(yi)種刺激(ji),也(ye)為后來(lai)(lai)(lai)也(ye)先(xian)(xian)使(shi)(shi)團(tuan)(tuan)謊報人(ren)數埋下伏筆。
宣(xuan)德十年(nian)(1435年(nian)),明(ming)(ming)宣(xuan)宗(zong)駕崩,皇太子朱祁鎮即位,即明(ming)(ming)英宗(zong)。隨(sui)著“一夫跳(tiao)梁”“文宗(zong)罪(zui)人”的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)三楊(yang)去世,三楊(yang)歌功頌德,粉飾現實的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)弊(bi)端開始(shi)突顯(xian),“自仁宗(zong)不勤遠(yuan)略(lve),宣(xuan)宗(zong)承之。”經過(guo)明(ming)(ming)宣(xuan)宗(zong)巡邏(luo)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)罷邊(bian)主和的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)政策施行(xing),導致(zhi)了明(ming)(ming)軍(jun)(jun)(jun)異域(yu)情(qing)報功能的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)失靈。明(ming)(ming)軍(jun)(jun)(jun)從此沒(mei)有了洪武(wu)永樂兩朝(chao)捕獲(huo)精準的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)有源(yuan)頭的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)異域(yu)情(qing)報數據的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)能力,在只(zhi)有垃圾信(xin)息的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)情(qing)況中(zhong)卻要強(qiang)行(xing)分析(xi)時勢(shi),結果(guo)只(zhi)能是(shi)(shi)雙方接戰(zhan)時戰(zhan)敗。當時明(ming)(ming)英宗(zong)集(ji)團按照收到(dao)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)情(qing)報分析(xi)推演,理(li)論上(shang)明(ming)(ming)朝(chao)軍(jun)(jun)(jun)隊前方的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)預定水源(yuan)地作(zuo)為長(chang)城以內的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)地區(qu)是(shi)(shi)不應該存(cun)在敵人的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)騎兵。整個(ge)部隊是(shi)(shi)一個(ge)倒梯形陣形,目的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)是(shi)(shi)防備后(hou)面的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)9萬(wan)瓦剌(la)軍(jun)(jun)(jun)追上(shang)來攻擊(ji)背后(hou),明(ming)(ming)英宗(zong)集(ji)團誰(shui)能想(xiang)到(dao),錦衣衛及(ji)夜不收竟然沒(mei)有捕捉到(dao)前面(也就是(shi)(shi)歸途的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)大門口上(shang))居然有3萬(wan)瓦剌(la)軍(jun)(jun)(jun)已經按口袋陣蹲守伏擊(ji)至(zhi)少半個(ge)月。搞明(ming)(ming)白瓦剌(la)軍(jun)(jun)(jun)不是(shi)(shi)背后(hou)一支,而是(shi)(shi)前后(hou)兩只(zhi),土木堡之變(bian)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)問題就迎刃而解(jie)了。但長(chang)期(qi)史書上(shang)都不提(ti)伏擊(ji)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)那(nei)3萬(wan)(一說(shuo)兩萬(wan))瓦剌(la)伏馬。
加上明(ming)廷的(de)(de)(de)(de)主(zhu)要(yao)視(shi)線在南(nan)方麓川(chuan)及(ji)再(zai)下(xia)南(nan)洋,朱(zhu)(zhu)祁(qi)鎮在正統(tong)(tong)(tong)(tong)三(san)(san)(san)(san)年(nian)(nian)(亦集(ji)乃之(zhi)(zhi)戰)、正統(tong)(tong)(tong)(tong)六年(nian)(nian)(豐州(zhou)之(zhi)(zhi)戰)、正統(tong)(tong)(tong)(tong)九年(nian)(nian)(以克列蘇之(zhi)(zhi)戰)所(suo)發(fa)動的(de)(de)(de)(de)三(san)(san)(san)(san)次(ci)大(da)規模(mo)北(bei)(bei)伐(fa)(fa)的(de)(de)(de)(de)主(zhu)將,除(chu)了(le)(le)楊(yang)、石等(deng)人外大(da)多投入南(nan)征隊伍之(zhi)(zhi)中。明(ming)正統(tong)(tong)(tong)(tong)十(shi)(shi)一年(nian)(nian)(1446年(nian)(nian))冬天,也(ye)先攻(gong)(gong)打兀(wu)良哈(ha),派遣使(shi)(shi)臣(chen)(chen)抵達明(ming)朝(chao)邊鎮大(da)同乞糧(liang),并且請求會見守備太(tai)監郭(guo)敬。朱(zhu)(zhu)祁(qi)鎮敕(chi)令郭(guo)敬不(bu)要(yao)接見也(ye)先,也(ye)不(bu)要(yao)給他糧(liang)食。明(ming)正統(tong)(tong)(tong)(tong)十(shi)(shi)二(er)年(nian)(nian)(1447年(nian)(nian)),也(ye)先再(zai)次(ci)致書明(ming)朝(chao)宣(xuan)府守將楊(yang)洪。楊(yang)洪奏(zou)報朝(chao)廷之(zhi)(zhi)后,朱(zhu)(zhu)祁(qi)鎮要(yao)他禮遇瓦剌(la)(la)使(shi)(shi)臣(chen)(chen)。面對(dui)瓦剌(la)(la)的(de)(de)(de)(de)蠢蠢欲(yu)動,明(ming)朝(chao)北(bei)(bei)方的(de)(de)(de)(de)禍亂已(yi)近在眼前,但是英(ying)宗(zong)君臣(chen)(chen)視(shi)而不(bu)見,卻發(fa)動了(le)(le)對(dui)麓川(chuan)的(de)(de)(de)(de)第(di)四次(ci)征討(tao)。正統(tong)(tong)(tong)(tong)十(shi)(shi)三(san)(san)(san)(san)年(nian)(nian)(1448年(nian)(nian))三(san)(san)(san)(san)月,思機(ji)發(fa)再(zai)次(ci)掠奪(duo)孟(meng)養,明(ming)朝(chao)屢次(ci)諭令仍不(bu)從。英(ying)宗(zong)復命靖遠(yuan)伯王驥提督軍(jun)務,都督宮聚為總兵,張(zhang)軏、田禮為左右(you)副總兵,方瑛、張(zhang)銳為左右(you)參將,率(lv)南(nan)京、云南(nan)、湖廣、四川(chuan)、貴州(zhou)土漢(han)軍(jun)十(shi)(shi)三(san)(san)(san)(san)萬(wan)(wan)討(tao)伐(fa)(fa)麓川(chuan)。明(ming)朝(chao)征伐(fa)(fa)麓川(chuan),明(ming)朝(chao)調動了(le)(le)大(da)量人力物力,戰爭(zheng)造(zao)成了(le)(le)重大(da)的(de)(de)(de)(de)人員(yuan)傷亡,連(lian)(lian)年(nian)(nian)征戰,仍未(wei)徹(che)底平(ping)息叛(pan)亂,最終以盟約形式結束;期間連(lian)(lian)續發(fa)動數(shu)十(shi)(shi)萬(wan)(wan)人的(de)(de)(de)(de)進攻(gong)(gong),致使(shi)(shi)大(da)軍(jun)疲憊(bei)、國庫(ku)虧空,對(dui)北(bei)(bei)面蒙(meng)古瓦剌(la)(la)的(de)(de)(de)(de)防御空虛。郭(guo)琰的(de)(de)(de)(de)下(xia)番海船造(zao)完(wan)后沿海又出現大(da)規模(mo)民(min)變,后因張(zhang)昭反對(dui)再(zai)下(xia)西洋逐罷。
也(ye)(ye)(ye)先(xian)(xian)通過(guo)在(zai)明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)朝(chao)居住的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)瓦剌(la)使(shi)(shi)臣及(ji)明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)庭(ting)內(nei)(nei)部(bu)高中(zhong)低層內(nei)(nei)奸(jian),大(da)(da)(da)(da)(da)明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)邊防虛實(shi)動靜(jing)皆已知(zhi)(zhi)曉,進攻(gong)時間節點選的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)非常(chang)合適。其(qi)(qi)中(zhong)就(jiu)有(you)達官(guan)(guan)賽因(yin)不花、四(si)(si)朝(chao)元老御監(jian)郭敬的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)家人(ren)(ren)把(ba)伯、義州衛(wei)軍(jun)(jun)士王文、李讓、施帶(dai)兒(er)(er)、小田兒(er)(er)、加(jia)失(shi)領(ling)真(zhen)、大(da)(da)(da)(da)(da)同指(zhi)揮李讓幼(you)女為(wei)(wei)也(ye)(ye)(ye)先(xian)(xian)弟大(da)(da)(da)(da)(da)同王兒(er)(er)婦(fu),也(ye)(ye)(ye)先(xian)(xian)許以知(zhi)(zhi)院,又密受也(ye)(ye)(ye)先(xian)(xian)賞馬(ma)(ma)(ma)(ma)四(si)(si)匹,被虜(lu)婦(fu)女二(er)口。將各城(cheng)指(zhi)揮姓名盡報(bao)與(yu)也(ye)(ye)(ye)先(xian)(xian)。跛兒(er)(er)干(gan),本(ben)歸降蒙古(gu)人(ren)(ren),任御馬(ma)(ma)(ma)(ma)監(jian)少監(jian)。明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)庭(ting)給事宮禁(jin)數十年,及(ji)土(tu)(tu)木之(zhi)敗(bai)即(ji)(ji)助(zhu)虜(lu)反攻(gong)射內(nei)(nei)使(shi)(shi)黎定,既(ji)又為(wei)(wei)虜(lu)使(shi)(shi)來(lai)有(you)所(suo)(suo)(suo)需索,明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)朝(chao)命執而誅(zhu)之(zhi)。正統十四(si)(si)年十月二(er)日御馬(ma)(ma)(ma)(ma)監(jian)少監(jian)跛兒(er)(er)干(gan)伏誅(zhu)。根據《歷代符牌(pai)圖錄》記載,南西伯利(li)亞出(chu)土(tu)(tu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)腰牌(pai)屬于明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)朝(chao)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)御馬(ma)(ma)(ma)(ma)監(jian)。御馬(ma)(ma)(ma)(ma)監(jian)是統領(ling)禁(jin)軍(jun)(jun)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de),是屬于武(wu)職,由于御馬(ma)(ma)(ma)(ma)監(jian)十分重(zhong)(zhong)要(yao),其(qi)(qi)腰牌(pai)也(ye)(ye)(ye)十分重(zhong)(zhong)要(yao),無腰牌(pai)者(zhe)一律重(zhong)(zhong)罪(zui),擅自把(ba)腰牌(pai)借給別人(ren)(ren)者(zhe)借者(zhe)和(he)借予者(zhe)同罪(zui),所(suo)(suo)(suo)以明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)朝(chao)內(nei)(nei)部(bu)出(chu)現(xian)了內(nei)(nei)奸(jian)。《明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)英宗(zong)實(shi)錄》:“跛兒(er)(er)干(gan)及(ji)土(tu)(tu)木之(zhi)敗(bai),即(ji)(ji)助(zhu)虜(lu)反攻(gong),射內(nei)(nei)使(shi)(shi)黎定。”《北(bei)使(shi)(shi)錄》記載:“也(ye)(ye)(ye)先(xian)(xian)人(ren)(ren)馬(ma)(ma)(ma)(ma)四(si)(si)圍,大(da)(da)(da)(da)(da)戰,大(da)(da)(da)(da)(da)軍(jun)(jun)倒戈,自相蹂踐。”這(zhe)兩條(tiao)記載明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)確(que)表示了當時明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)軍(jun)(jun)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)確(que)有(you)大(da)(da)(da)(da)(da)軍(jun)(jun)叛亂,前者(zhe)更是點名跛兒(er)(er)干(gan)發(fa)動了叛亂。跛兒(er)(er)干(gan)可(ke)是御馬(ma)(ma)(ma)(ma)監(jian)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)人(ren)(ren),這(zhe)也(ye)(ye)(ye)是為(wei)(wei)什(shen)么瓦剌(la)每次都能洞悉明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)軍(jun)(jun)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)去向,且為(wei)(wei)什(shen)么大(da)(da)(da)(da)(da)軍(jun)(jun)一觸即(ji)(ji)潰的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)原因(yin)。也(ye)(ye)(ye)先(xian)(xian)又重(zhong)(zhong)金賄賂明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)英宗(zong)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)翻(fan)譯官(guan)(guan)員馬(ma)(ma)(ma)(ma)云、馬(ma)(ma)(ma)(ma)青(qing),探(tan)聽明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)廷(ting)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)虛實(shi),提(ti)出(chu)與(yu)明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)廷(ting)皇室通婚的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)要(yao)求,因(yin)為(wei)(wei)也(ye)(ye)(ye)先(xian)(xian)欲與(yu)黃金家族(zu)比高,所(suo)(suo)(suo)以想為(wei)(wei)兒(er)(er)子求娶明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)朝(chao)公(gong)主夸耀蒙古(gu)群雄之(zhi)中(zhong),明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)朝(chao)達官(guan)(guan)千戶(hu)馬(ma)(ma)(ma)(ma)云(這(zhe)人(ren)(ren)在(zai)明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)史研究(jiu)中(zhong)極重(zhong)(zhong)要(yao),曾任明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)英宗(zong)下西洋(yang)和(he)番指(zhi)揮、撒(sa)馬(ma)(ma)(ma)(ma)兒(er)(er)罕公(gong)使(shi)(shi))、馬(ma)(ma)(ma)(ma)青(qing)、吳良等私(si)下許諾,并說還要(yao)送也(ye)(ye)(ye)先(xian)(xian)美女。但(dan)因(yin)明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)朝(chao)重(zhong)(zhong)開大(da)(da)(da)(da)(da)宋天的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)意(yi)(yi)(yi)識形態的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)關系(xi),明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)朝(chao)翻(fan)譯官(guan)(guan)馬(ma)(ma)(ma)(ma)云、馬(ma)(ma)(ma)(ma)青(qing)事后未敢(gan)將此事奏報(bao)明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)廷(ting)。后也(ye)(ye)(ye)先(xian)(xian)貢(gong)使(shi)(shi)至稱:“此聘(pin)禮(li)也(ye)(ye)(ye)(供馬(ma)(ma)(ma)(ma)為(wei)(wei)迎娶明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)朝(chao)公(gong)主聘(pin)禮(li)),”明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)廷(ting)答(da)復(fu):“詔無許姻(yin)意(yi)(yi)(yi)(沒有(you)許婚這(zhe)回事)”。也(ye)(ye)(ye)先(xian)(xian)以為(wei)(wei)通婚成功,方(fang)才遣使(shi)(shi)貢(gong)馬(ma)(ma)(ma)(ma)作(zuo)為(wei)(wei)聘(pin)禮(li),結果大(da)(da)(da)(da)(da)失(shi)顏(yan)面。事后也(ye)(ye)(ye)先(xian)(xian)以明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)朝(chao)刁難貢(gong)使(shi)(shi)并撕毀婚約及(ji)隨(sui)意(yi)(yi)(yi)克(ke)減歲(sui)賜為(wei)(wei)由,集結軍(jun)(jun)隊出(chu)兵大(da)(da)(da)(da)(da)舉進攻(gong)明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)朝(chao)邊境(jing),對內(nei)(nei)則稱要(yao)明(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)(ming)朝(chao)予他(ta)大(da)(da)(da)(da)(da)都。
明(ming)正(zheng)統十(shi)四年(1449年)二月,瓦剌太師也(ye)先遣(qian)使2000余人貢馬,詐稱3000人,向明(ming)朝(chao)中央邀(yao)賞(shang)(shang),由(you)于宦官王振不肯多給賞(shang)(shang)賜,按實際人數給賞(shang)(shang),并減去馬價五分之四,沒(mei)(mei)能滿(man)足他們的要求,就制(zhi)造釁端。遂于這年七月,統率各部,分四路(lu)(lu)(lu)大舉(ju)向內地騷擾(rao)。東路(lu)(lu)(lu),由(you)脫(tuo)脫(tuo)不花與兀良哈部攻(gong)(gong)遼(liao)東;西路(lu)(lu)(lu),派別將進(jin)攻(gong)(gong)甘(gan)州(甘(gan)肅張掖(ye));中路(lu)(lu)(lu)為(wei)進(jin)攻(gong)(gong)的重點,又(you)分為(wei)兩支(zhi),一支(zhi)由(you)阿剌知院(yuan)所統率,直(zhi)攻(gong)(gong)宣府圍赤(chi)城,另一支(zhi)由(you)也(ye)先親率進(jin)攻(gong)(gong)大同(tong)(tong)。也(ye)先進(jin)攻(gong)(gong)大同(tong)(tong)的一路(lu)(lu)(lu),“兵鋒(feng)甚銳,大同(tong)(tong)兵失利,塞外(wai)城堡,所至陷沒(mei)(mei)”。大同(tong)(tong)參將吳浩戰死于貓兒莊。明(ming)遣(qian)駙馬都(dou)尉井源等(deng)四將各率兵萬人御敵(di)。
當時明英宗寵信(xin)宦官王振。張太皇太后病逝,元(yuan)老三楊(yang)或(huo)死或(huo)貶,王振更加擅作威(wei)福,無所忌(ji)憚,竟盜走(zou)明太祖(zu)朱元(yuan)璋所立禁內(nei)臣(chen)干(gan)預(yu)朝政所立之鐵碑。從此,大權獨攬,廣植私黨,使其(qi)侄王山為(wei)錦(jin)衣衛指揮,王林為(wei)錦(jin)衣衛僉(qian)事,其(qi)黨羽(yu)個個升官進祿,飛黃(huang)騰(teng)達。他又排斥(chi)異己,陷害忠(zhong)良。
大同前線(xian)的敗(bai)報不斷傳到(dao)北(bei)京(jing),明英(ying)宗朱祁(qi)鎮在王振(zhen)的煽(shan)惑與挾持下,準(zhun)備親(qin)(qin)征(zheng)。兵部尚書(shu)鄺埜和侍郎(lang)于謙“力言(yan)六師不宜(yi)輕(qing)出”,吏部尚書(shu)王直率群臣(chen)上(shang)疏勸諫,但明英(ying)宗偏信王振(zhen),一意(yi)孤行,執意(yi)親(qin)(qin)征(zheng)。
正統十四(si)年(nian)(1449年(nian))7月(yue)16日,英宗(zong)命其弟郕(cheng)王朱祁(qi)鈺留守(shou)北京,然后和王振帶(dai)領約(yue)25萬(wan)大軍(號稱50萬(wan))從(cong)北京出發。英國公張輔(fu)、成(cheng)國公朱勇、兵(bing)部(bu)尚書鄺埜、戶部(bu)尚書王佐、內(nei)閣(ge)學(xue)士曹(cao)鼐、張益等文武百官護駕從(cong)征。
由于組織不當,一切軍(jun)政事務皆由王(wang)(wang)振專斷,即使(shi)是成(cheng)國(guo)公朱勇(yong)在王(wang)(wang)振面前(qian)也要膝行而前(qian);戶部尚書王(wang)(wang)佐請皇帝回軍(jun),王(wang)(wang)振就命其跪在草(cao)叢里,直到(dao)天(tian)黑才(cai)能起來。隨征(zheng)的文武大臣卻不使(shi)參預(yu)軍(jun)政事務,軍(jun)內(nei)自相驚亂。
正(zheng)統(tong)十四(si)年(1449年)七月(yue)(yue)十九(jiu)日(ri)(ri),英宗(zong)出居庸關,過懷(huai)來(lai),至(zhi)宣(xuan)府(fu)。正(zheng)統(tong)十四(si)年(1449年)八(ba)月(yue)(yue)一日(ri)(ri),明(ming)(ming)軍進(jin)到大(da)同。未交鋒,鎮(zhen)守太(tai)監(jian)郭敬報告也先(xian)為誘明(ming)(ming)軍深入,主動(dong)北(bei)(bei)撤(che),王振看到瓦剌軍北(bei)(bei)撤(che),仍堅(jian)持北(bei)(bei)進(jin),后聞前(qian)方慘敗(bai),則(ze)驚慌撤(che)退(tui)。本欲(yu)使英宗(zong)于退(tui)兵時(shi)經(jing)過其家鄉(xiang)蔚州“駕幸其第(di)”,顯示威(wei)風;又怕大(da)軍損(sun)壞他(ta)的(de)田園莊(zhuang)稼,故行軍路(lu)線屢變(bian),導(dao)致士(shi)兵疲憊(bei)不堪。至(zhi)宣(xuan)府(fu),瓦剌大(da)隊追兵追襲而來(lai),明(ming)(ming)軍3萬騎兵被“殺掠殆盡”。正(zheng)統(tong)十四(si)年(1449年)八(ba)月(yue)(yue)十三日(ri)(ri),明(ming)(ming)軍狼狽逃到土(tu)木(mu)堡,而瓦剌軍緊追不舍。
兵(bing)部尚書鄺埜一再(zai)要求馳入居(ju)庸(yong)關以(yi)保證安全,但(dan)王振不準。土木堡地勢高(gao),無(wu)泉缺(que)水,土木堡之南(nan)十(shi)五里(li)處有河,被瓦(wa)(wa)剌(la)軍(jun)占據,將士饑渴(ke)難耐,挖井(jing)二丈仍無(wu)水。隔(ge)日(ri)瓦(wa)(wa)剌(la)軍(jun)隊包圍土木堡。也先(xian)遣使詐和,并主動撤(che)離,以(yi)麻痹明軍(jun)。
明(ming)英(ying)宗(zong)(zong)不疑(yi)有詐(zha),遣曹鼐起(qi)(qi)草詔書。王(wang)振(zhen)下令移(yi)營就(jiu)水,當明(ming)軍(jun)大(da)軍(jun)移(yi)動時,饑渴難(nan)忍(ren)的(de)軍(jun)士一哄而起(qi)(qi),奔向河邊,亂(luan)成一團。瓦(wa)(wa)剌(la)軍(jun)伏兵(bing)(bing)四(si)起(qi)(qi),趁機發動總(zong)攻,倉(cang)促(cu)應戰的(de)明(ming)軍(jun)被打得大(da)敗(bai)。明(ming)軍(jun)二十余萬(wan)人(ren)有三(san)分之一戰死(si),中(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)傷(shang)居(ju)半(ban)。太師英(ying)國公張輔,泰(tai)寧侯陳贏,駙馬(ma)都(dou)督井源,平鄉伯陳懷,襄城伯李(li)珍,遂安(an)伯陳塤,修武伯沈榮,都(dou)督梁(liang)成、王(wang)貴,戶(hu)部(bu)尚書王(wang)佐(zuo),兵(bing)(bing)部(bu)尚書鄺埜,吏部(bu)左(zuo)侍(shi)(shi)郎(lang)(lang)(lang)兼翰林院學士曹鼐,刑部(bu)右(you)(you)侍(shi)(shi)郎(lang)(lang)(lang)丁鉉(xuan),工部(bu)右(you)(you)侍(shi)(shi)郎(lang)(lang)(lang)主永和,都(dou)察院右(you)(you)副(fu)都(dou)御史鄧栗,翰林院侍(shi)(shi)讀學士張益,通政司左(zuo)通政龔全安(an),太常寺(si)(si)少(shao)(shao)卿黃養正(zheng)、戴慶祖、王(wang)一居(ju),太仆(pu)寺(si)(si)少(shao)(shao)卿劉容,尚寶少(shao)(shao)卿凌鑄,給(gei)事中(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)包良佐(zuo)、姚銑、鮑輝,中(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)書舍人(ren)俞拱(gong)、潘澄(cheng)、錢(qian)禺,監察御史張洪(hong)、黃裳、魏貞(zhen)、夏(xia)誠、申祐、尹(yin)(yin)竑、童存德、孫慶、林祥鳳,郎(lang)(lang)(lang)中(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)齊汪、馮學明(ming),員外郎(lang)(lang)(lang)王(wang)健、程(cheng)思溫、程(cheng)式(shi)、逯端,主事俞鑒、張塘、鄭瑄、大(da)理(li)寺(si)(si)副(fu)馬(ma)豫(yu),行(xing)人(ren)司正(zheng)尹(yin)(yin)昌(chang),行(xing)人(ren)羅(luo)如墉(yong),欽天監夏(xia)官正(zheng)劉信,序班李(li)恭、石玉(yu)這五十二名跟隨明(ming)英(ying)宗(zong)(zong)遠征的(de)群(qun)臣皆死(si)于混戰中(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)。明(ming)英(ying)宗(zong)(zong)的(de)護衛將(jiang)軍(jun)樊忠(zhong)憤(fen)怒至極,掄起(qi)(qi)鐵錘砸碎了王(wang)振(zhen)的(de)腦袋。(但據(ju)明(ming)英(ying)宗(zong)(zong)自己的(de)回憶王(wang)振(zhen)也是被瓦(wa)(wa)剌(la)軍(jun)殺死(si)的(de))樊忠(zhong)不久亦(yi)戰死(si)。只(zhi)有大(da)理(li)寺(si)(si)右(you)(you)寺(si)(si)丞蕭(xiao)維楨(zhen)、禮部(bu)左(zuo)侍(shi)(shi)郎(lang)(lang)(lang)楊(yang)善、文選郎(lang)(lang)(lang)中(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)李(li)賢等(deng)數(shu)人(ren)僥幸(xing)逃出。明(ming)英(ying)宗(zong)(zong)看到突(tu)圍無望(wang),索性跳(tiao)下馬(ma)來(lai),面向南方,盤膝而坐,等(deng)待就(jiu)縛。
不一(yi)會(hui)兒(er),瓦刺兵沖上(shang)來,一(yi)個士兵上(shang)前要剝取明(ming)英宗的衣甲,一(yi)看他的衣甲與眾不同,心知不是(shi)(shi)一(yi)般人物(wu),便推擁著他去見也(ye)先之弟賽(sai)(sai)刊王(wang),賽(sai)(sai)刊王(wang)在(zai)問(wen)明(ming)英宗時,明(ming)英宗反問(wen)道:“你是(shi)(shi)誰?是(shi)(shi)也(ye)先,還(huan)是(shi)(shi)伯(bo)顏帖木(mu)兒(er),或者是(shi)(shi)賽(sai)(sai)刊王(wang)。”賽(sai)(sai)刊王(wang)感到明(ming)英宗說話的口氣很大,立即報告也(ye)先,也(ye)先立即去向他請安行君臣禮(li),獻上(shang)各種野味美食。衛拉特還(huan)繳獲馬匹二十萬(wan)頭及(ji)無數衣甲器械(xie)輜重(zhong)。
政治
土木(mu)之(zhi)變致使明(ming)英(ying)宗(zong)被俘;四朝老臣(chen)張輔、駙馬(ma)井源(yuan)、兵部尚書鄺(kuang)埜(ye)、戶(hu)部尚書王(wang)佐(zuo)、侍郎丁銘、王(wang)永和以(yi)及(ji)內閣成(cheng)員(yuan)曹鼎、張益等(deng)五(wu)十(shi)余名(ming)隨行出征的文官(guan)武(wu)將戰死;財產(chan)損失不計其數;明(ming)成(cheng)祖朱棣留下的五(wu)十(shi)萬大(da)(da)軍全(quan)軍覆沒,最為精銳(rui)的三大(da)(da)營部隊亦(yi)隨之(zhi)毀于一旦,軍火武(wu)器研發亦(yi)被大(da)(da)大(da)(da)阻礙;京城的門戶(hu)亦(yi)已(yi)洞開;明(ming)英(ying)宗(zong)復位后(hou)更是殺了以(yi)于謙為首等(deng)眾多權臣(chen),導致明(ming)朝軍政(zheng)在土木(mu)之(zhi)變之(zhi)后(hou)第二(er)次斷層。
隨著(zhu)開(kai)國武人勛貴集團和靖難功(gong)臣(chen)集團在土木堡之變被(bei)消滅殆(dai)盡,皇(huang)帝只能通過內廷(ting)的宦官來制(zhi)衡文官集團以貫徹自己的意(yi)(yi)志和整個國家的意(yi)(yi)志,文武大臣(chen)和君(jun)主離心離德(de),國勢日蹙。
明英宗南(nan)歸后,以及(ji)皇儲問題,景(jing)泰、天順年間(jian),明朝皇權(quan)斗爭(zheng)愈發激(ji)烈(lie),朝臣(chen)為了保(bao)護自身利益,左右搖(yao)擺、嫁禍誣(wu)陷,斗爭(zheng)也更加殘(can)酷(ku)。
此期(qi)間的(de)(de)(de)內(nei)(nei)閣也并未(wei)發揮出它的(de)(de)(de)作(zuo)用。正(zheng)統前(qian)期(qi)政(zheng)歸內(nei)(nei)閣,三(san)楊為軸,制度也漸趨完善,但無法阻止(zhi)自身(shen)實際作(zuo)用的(de)(de)(de)逐漸下降。土木事變(bian)發生(sheng)前(qian)后(hou),內(nei)(nei)閣作(zuo)為與皇(huang)(huang)帝最(zui)為親密的(de)(de)(de)輔政(zheng)機構,未(wei)能發揮出其(qi)應有的(de)(de)(de)作(zuo)用,既未(wei)阻止(zhi)先期(qi)的(de)(de)(de)王振擅權(quan),在后(hou)期(qi)的(de)(de)(de)北京(jing)保衛戰和(he)景泰(tai)、天(tian)順的(de)(de)(de)風云交替中也毫無建(jian)樹(shu),表現十分羸弱,于軍國大事退避(bi)三(san)舍。這段時(shi)期(qi),內(nei)(nei)閣只能尷尬地任由宦官專政(zheng),或(huo)被皇(huang)(huang)帝輕視(shi)而任用于謙(qian),傾心(xin)委(wei)政(zheng),以至朝臣不滿,上(shang)書(shu)稱于謙(qian)太過專權(quan),請求(qiu)六(liu)部大事須與內(nei)(nei)閣一(yi)同奏報施行(xing),或(huo)是任由石(shi)亨、曹吉(ji)祥等(deng)奸佞決定(ding)擺(bai)布。
軍事
土木堡之變后,明(ming)朝精(jing)銳軍隊損失(shi)殆盡(jin),這必然(ran)會引起相(xiang)關的(de)政策、制度的(de)重(zhong)大變化(hua),突出表(biao)現(xian)在邊(bian)防(fang)形(xing)(xing)勢和軍事(shi)制度的(de)改變上。盡(jin)管有景泰帝(di)的(de)改革,但也達不到明(ming)朝頂峰時的(de)狀態。邊(bian)防(fang)政策由積極進攻轉變為被動防(fang)守,最終(zhong)形(xing)(xing)成了著名的(de)九邊(bian)防(fang)御體系(xi)。軍事(shi)制度上則(ze)是募兵制的(de)興起。
土(tu)木之變是(shi)明軍不(bu)(bu)戰自潰。北京圍(wei)城不(bu)(bu)下,則蒙古內部矛盾(dun)也起了重要作用。不(bu)(bu)久,蒙古各部終于(yu)兵戎相(xiang)見,脫脫不(bu)(bu)花汗敗(bai)亡。也先(xian)稱帝,但(dan)他無法解決造(zao)成封建割據(ju)的(de)(de)經濟的(de)(de)和政(zheng)治的(de)(de)矛盾(dun),而(er)為人又心胸狹窄,荒于(yu)酒(jiu)色,終于(yu)兵敗(bai)被殺。
也有(you)大批的蒙古人(ren)(ren)不愿在漠北(bei)過艱苦日子(zi),借此(ci)機會轉而投靠明(ming)朝,定居北(bei)京及北(bei)直隸各(ge)地。一(yi)些內地的漢人(ren)(ren)由(you)于痛恨明(ming)朝暴政而投降也先,去了蒙古高(gao)原。
1449年9月(yue)1日的土木(mu)之變,是(shi)明朝(chao)中央軍隊第一次發生的一場失敗戰(zhan)役。除了軍事(shi)指揮錯誤的直接(jie)原(yuan)因外,與長期以(yi)來明朝(chao)北(bei)方邊防被破(po)壞有密切關系,是(shi)北(bei)方邊防廢弛的必然結果。而(er)朝(chao)中的士大夫(fu)為防止明朝(chao)重(zhong)蹈北(bei)宋(song)滅亡覆轍(che)起到了重(zhong)要的作用。
李實:中國人民多如(ru)草芥(jie),土木(mu)失(shi)利,出于不意(yi),未可以為(wei)(wei)常理(li)。有(you)盛有(you)衰,有(you)隆有(you)替。把禿:亦非我(wo)每勇(yong)力,乃天的氣候。楊善(shan):太(tai)平(ping)日久,將卒相安,況此行(xing)只(zhi)是扈(hu)從隨駕(jia),初無號令對敵。因四方無虞,只(zhi)修營(ying)寺宇而已,何曾操習?被爾虜兵陡(dou)然沖突,如(ru)何不走?”李賢(xian):“自古胡人得中國之利未有(you)盛于此舉者,胡人亦自謂出于望外,況乘(cheng)輿為(wei)(wei)其所獲(huo),其偶然哉?”